By Rebecca Taylor, Nottingham Trent University and Wyn Morgan, University of Nottingham
Published April 2012
The purpose of this Guide is to provide a first port of call for anyone teaching or administering economics and business degrees in the UK and who is keen to find out what is being offered across the EU in these disciplines. In addition, it aims to provide a context for the ongoing discussions in the Bologna Process that is reshaping higher education within the EU. Given that it simply draws together information from a publically available but disparate and wide range of sources, both in hard copy and electronically, it is not intended to be a definitive or state-of-the-art exposition of each country and its higher education provision but merely a finger post to further information.
The Guide has two main elements. The first is a brief overview of the Bologna Process and how it has developed over time. In addition to this skeleton view, links to further resources and information are provided to allow for greater depth of research.
The second part is an overview of higher education provision on a country-by-country basis with links to the universities or institutes of higher education who offer business and/or economics degrees. Each overview is given the same structure with the following components:
As with many of the EU’s policies, such as trade, labour markets and agriculture, the underlying aim of the Bologna Process (or Bologna Accords) is to harmonise and simplify provision across Member States in a designated area of activity, in this case higher education. In essence, the desire is to create the European Higher Education Area, although unlike other aspects of EU policy it does draw in countries beyond the Member States (see http://www.ehea.info/). At present there are 47 countries involved and these are:
Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Holy See, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova , Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom
The Bologna Declaration has several objectives, namely:
“Adoption of a system of easily readable and comparable degrees, also through the implementation of the Diploma Supplement, in order to promote European citizens’ employability and the international competitiveness of the European higher education system.
Adoption of a system essentially based on two main cycles, undergraduate and graduate. Access to the second cycle shall require successful completion of first cycle studies, lasting a minimum of three years. The degree awarded after the first cycle shall also be relevant to the European labour market as an appropriate level of qualification. The second cycle should lead to the master and/or doctorate degree as in many European countries.
Establishment of a system of credits[1] - such as in the ECTS system – as a proper means of promoting the most widespread student mobility. Credits could also be acquired in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning, provided they are recognised by receiving Universities concerned.
Promotion of mobility by overcoming obstacles to the effective exercise of free movement with particular attention to:
- for students, access to study and training opportunities and to related services
- for teachers, researchers and administrative staff, recognition and valorisation of periods spent in a European context researching, teaching and training, without prejudicing their statutory rights.
Promotion of European co-operation in quality assurance with a view to developing comparable criteria and methodologies.
Promotion of the necessary European dimensions in higher education, particularly with regards to curricular development, interinstitutional co-operation, mobility schemes and integrated programmes of study, training and research.”
(Bologna Declaration, 19th June 1999 p3-4)
The overall aim was to harmonise academic degree and quality assurance standards as driven by the Lisbon Recognition Convention. In so doing, movement between countries by students becomes easier, the EU becomes a more attractive destination to come and study to those from outside the EU including a greater parity of systems with the US and finally a strengthening of the knowledge and research base to ensure continuing stability within the region. This last point also helps explain the inclusion of non-EU members in the process.
Building on an initial agreement between France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, the Bologna Declaration was signed by 30 countries in 1999 and paved the way for beginning the process of harmonising higher education in Europe. Since that stage, there have been five iterations that have both deepened and widened the process as more countries have been drawn in and sought to be part of the Process.
The number of signatory countries rose to 33 and the main thrust of the outcomes of this meeting was to create an equal status for students in the process of creating the EHEA as well as stressing the social aspects of the Process too. Ultimately the focus on improving the competitiveness of the EU’s higher education sector was central to all the discussions.
With 40 countries now taking part, the Berlin Ministerial Conference highlighted the role of research in the EHEA and the fact that this was entirely consistent with the aims of the European Research Area, both of which will help to strengthen the competitiveness of the EU. In addition, the third cycle (doctoral) of studies, was now drawn into the discussions.
Focussing more on how the policies could be implemented, the Bergen Communiqué sought to gain agreement on and a commitment to elaborating national qualifications frameworks by 2010. Alongside this was recognition that plans needed to be drawn up for the post-2010 world of the EHEA too while ensuring that the EHEA continued to offer strong social mobility.
Membership expanded to 46 at the London Conference and here the emphasis was on taking stock of what had been achieved so far and the extent to which future developments could be placed within a global context of higher education provision.
With the original planned date of 2010 rapidly approaching, this Ministerial Conference sought to focus on deepening the implementation in a number of areas including: lifelong learning, employability, social dimensions, student centred learning, international openness and mobility of students , research, funding of the HE and multidimensional transparency tools.
Viewed as the anniversary conference it was here that the EHEA was officially launched as completed and thus the main objective of the Bologna Declaration had been achieved. However, other goals are still to be met and thus the aim of this meeting was to consolidate and widen the impact of the EHEA and this was reflected in there now being 47 signatory countries.
[1] European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard for comparing the study attainment across the EU and other European countries. ECTS are only awarded if study is successful and one academic year equates to 60 ECTS-credits (around 1500-1800 hours of study). They are used to facilitate transfer and progression of students.
Austria has two parallel systems of academic degrees:
The two-cycle degree system was phased out in 2010 and universities now award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" to graduates of the new-style Master's programme.
The higher education sector in Austria is regulated by the Federal Minister of Science and Research and the Federal Minister for Education, the Arts and Culture.
The higher education sector in Austria consists of public universities and university colleges of education, universities of applied sciences and private universities:
The Federal Minister of Science and Research and the University Councils are self-administration bodies responsible for the planning and supervision of the public universities. The planning and supervision of the Colleges of Education are the responsibility of the Federal Minister of Education, Arts and Culture, and the College of Councils.
Introduced in 1994, the Universities of Applied Sciences are the responsibility of the Fachhochschule Council which is regulated by the Federal Minister of Science and Research.
In 1999 private institutions became able to obtain accreditation as a Private University by the Accreditation Council. Programmes at private universities are either offered in accordance with state programmes and degrees or without reference to them. The private universities are regulated by the Accreditation Council (ÖAR) which is supervised by the Federal Minister of Science and Research.
There are a limited number of places available in each Fachhochschule so each institution has a selective admissions policy. Admissions decisions are made based on the Reifeprüfung, the Studienberechtigungspriifung (University entrance examination) or a professional qualification in a relevant field. Prospective students may also have to take additional examinations in order to gain entrance to a programme.
Students completing the (4 year) AHS[1] or the (5 year) BHS[2] receive a ‘Matura’ qualification and are entitled to enter the Higher Education Sector. Earning the Matura guarantees the student a place in higher education.
A Magister or Diplom degree is required prior to starting a Doktoratsstudium,
Austria has a three cycle degree structure.
According to Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings for 2010 the following university was ranked in the top 100
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2003
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2004
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2005
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2006
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2007
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2008
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2010
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University of Vienna
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84
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86
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86
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87
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85
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NR
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81
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NR = no ranking or ranking outside top 200.
[1] Academic secondary school (Algemeinbildende Höhere Schule; AHS)
[2]vocational education school (Berufsbildende Höhere Schulen BHS)
[3] European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard for comparing the study attainment and performance of students of higher education across the European Union and other collaborating European countries. For successfully completed studies, ECTS credits are awarded. One academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS-credits that are equivalent to 1500-1800 hours of study in all countries irrespective of standard or qualification type and is used to facilitate transfer and progression throughout the Union.
The higher education sector in Italy consists of two main parts, the university sector and the non-university sector. While the latter focuses on specialised areas of activity (such as language learning, military studies and so forth) the former sector is the larger one and deals with mainstream education. Within the university sector there are clear differences between the ways in which universities are established and the way in which they are classified. The majority are state (public) universities although there are a number of non-state (private) institutions as well as some smaller groupings including around distance delivery.
Oversight of university education si provided by a number of bodies including the National University Council (CUN), the University Student National Council (CNSU - in which the representatives of the various categories of university staff and students participate), and the Conference of Italian University Rectors (CRUI).
(i) Structure
Essentially state bodies, these universities are semi-autonomous with their own institution-specific rules and regulations. Led by a Rector, the key governing bodies are the Academic Senate, and the Board of Directors.
Such institutions are established by the Minister of Education via a decree awarded after due consideration of the statutes, its organisation and governance has been undertaken. The major difference from state universities is the funding and governance models.
A sub-set of universities are called "Politecnici" (technical universities) and these relate to the technical areas of architecture and engineering.
In essence, these universities are designed to teach Italian language, culture and literature to non-Italians.
Specialist institutions that deal solely in postgraduate (research) study within the 3rd cycle as defined by the Bologna process.
State decreed universities which exist to support and provide distance learning programmes mainly through e-learning approaches.
(ii) Access
The basic entry requirements to the new degree courses are defined as follows:
The general access requirement to the first cycle is the Italian school leaving qualification, the Diploma di Superamento dell'Esame di Stato conclusivo dei Corsi di Istruzione Secondaria Superiore
To get into the Laurea Specialistica (LS) second level, access requires the Italian first degree (L) or an equivalent foreign degree and the course lasts for two years
For the third cycle, (Dottorato di Ricerca (DR) or Italian doctorate degree, access is based on the Italian second degree (LS/LM)
(iii) Qualifications
Italy has a three cycle degree structure.
First Cycle (undergraduate studies) leads to a Corsi di Laurea (CL) for first degree courses. These are designed to provide basic levels of knowledge and professional skills. They last generally for 3 years and equate to 180 ECTS[1]. Those students gaining 180 credits are awarded the Laurea (L).
Second Cycle (graduate studies) can refer to two types of qualification. There is the second degree or Laurea specialistica (LS) that last for 2 years and consists of 120 ECTS or the 1st Level Masters degree (Master universitario di 1° livello) which is at least 1 year in duration and consists of 60+ ECTS. There is also a 2nd level Masters degree (Master universitario di 2° livello) that is also (1+ years and 60+ ECTS)
Third Cycle (postgraduate studies) is essentially the research doctorate degree or dottorato di ricerca. This takes at least 3 years
Finally, there are also some specialised degrees called diploma di specializzazione[2] that last for between 1 and 5 years and range between 60 and 300 ECTS.
According to Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings for 2010 there were no Italian universities ranked in the top 100. However, in terms of bands in which specific Universities fall, the following can be shown:
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Institution Name
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Rank(2009) |
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University of Milan
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101-151
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University of Pisa
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University of Roma - La Sapienza
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University of Padua
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152-200
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University of Bologna
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201-302
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University of Florence
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University of Turin
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Polytechnic Institute of Milan
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303-401
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Scuola Normale Superiore - Pisa
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University of Ferrara
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University of Genova
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University of Naples Federico II
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University of Palermo
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Catholic University of the Sacred Heart
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402-501
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Polytechnic University of Turin
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University of Bari
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University of Parma
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University of Pavia
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University of Perugia
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University of Roma - Tor Vergata
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|
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University of Siena
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[1] European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard for comparing the study attainment and performance of students of higher education across the European Union and other collaborating European countries. For successfully completed studies, ECTS credits are awarded. One academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS-credits that are equivalent to 1500-1800 hours of study in all countries irrespective of standard or qualification type and is used to facilitate transfer and progression throughout the Union.
[2] Offered according to the national legislation or EU directives for specific areas of study.
Latvia offers two types of approach in higher education – academic courses and professional courses. In 2009/10 there were just over 112,000 students enrolled on over 900 programmes in Latvia (Ministry of Education, 2011) with 94,000 on Bachelors programmes, 16,000 on Masters programmes and 2,000 taking Doctorates. In addition to state-run institutions, higher education is also offered by private education institutions, the latter mainly offering study programmes in areas such as law, management and finance.
The Latvian Government signed up to the Bologna Agreement in 1999 and operates a three cycle system of higher education. One further outcome of the Bologna process was that Latvian institutions are now able to offer professional degrees alongside academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
(i) Structure
Universities in Latvia are autonomous although they are overseen by the government. The system is split into two parts – state run and privately financed institutions established by legal bodies. Higher education is offered by 6 universities, 26 state institutions of higher education and 26 colleges. In total there are 58 higher education institutions – 37 are public and 21 are higher education institutions established by legal bodies.
(ii) Access
There is no centralised admissions system for universities, so each institution is responsible for its own admissions. There are two routes into higher education from secondary school: students should hold either an Atestāts par vispārējo vidējo izglītību (comprehensive general secondary education certificate) or a Diploms par profesionālo vidējo izglītību (vocational qualification) However, many institutions also require an entrance examination to be taken and passed before entry can occur.
(iii) Qualifications
The State Academic Higher Education Standard determines the scope and content of degrees offered in the higher education sector. Grades in first degrees are usually awarded on a 10 point scale with 1 the lowest and 10 the highest with a pass mark set at 4.
In the first cycle, Bachelors programmes have a nominal duration of between 6 to 8 semesters (3-4 years), representing 120-160 Latvian credits. One Latvian credit corresponds with 1.5 ECTS. After completion of the programme students obtain a Bakalaura Diploms degree.
The second cycle of study for a Masters programme has an average duration of 1 to 2 years so the minimum study period required for a Bachelors and then a Masters is five year in total but could last as long as seven years. When the Masters programme is completed, which includes writing a Dissertation, students obtain a Mağistra Diploms degree.
The third cycle is the Doctoral level and this requires entrants to have completed a Masters degree first. The majority of third cycle programmes last between 3 and 4 years. The doctorate degree programme leads to the award of the Doktora grāds degree.
In addition there are also:
Since 1993 and in line with the Bologna ideals, there are three cycles of study within universities: first cycle (undergraduate); second cycle (graduate); and third cycle (post-graduate). Oversight of the whole of the education system including higher education is provided by the Ministry of Education and Science.
The quality of the programmes as well as the educational and scientific activities of higher education institutions are periodically assessed by the Centre for Quality Assessment in Higher Education. Study is normally based on 40 national credits per year. One credit equates to 40 hours of study or to 1.5 ECTS credits (approximately an average of 1600 working hours per academic year).
(i) Structure
The higher education sector in Lithuania consists of 22 universities who deliver three cycles of study at the tertiary level, split between state (15) and private sector (7) provision. Private institutions can operate by gaining a licence from the government. There are other institutions offering study beyond secondary school and these are called colleges and tend to be more vocational in focus.
Before 2007 graduates from colleges received only a professional qualification and they did not receive a degree. Since 2007, colleges which had been approved through a quality assurance review (performed 4 years after their establishment), have been given the right to confer a profesinis bakalauras (Professional Bachelor) degree. Importantly though it does not give students access to 2nd cycle studies. Graduates can enter university-level Master studies only after they take additional courses. The additional courses should not exceed 80 credits.
(ii) Access
To gain entry to a university undergraduate programme, students must have a brandos atestatas from secondary education or an equivalent education certificate. As outlined below, to progress through the cycles of study students must successfully complete the previous stage. Admission is through a competitive process whether for initial 1st cycle or for 2nd and 3rd cycles and admission rules set up by the higher education institution and validated by the Ministry of Education and Science.
(iii) Qualifications
University studies are organized in three cycles, which are as follows:
Finally, in some disciplines such as engineering, law and medicine there are vientisosios or integrated programmes that combine 1st and 2nd cycle studies.
[1] European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard for comparing the study attainment and performance of students of higher education across the European Union and other collaborating European countries. For successfully completed studies, ECTS credits are awarded. One academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS-credits that are equivalent to 1500-1800 hours of study in all countries irrespective of standard or qualification type and is used to facilitate transfer and progression throughout the Union.
In August 2003, the University of Luxembourg was founded making it the only university in the country. Before its inception, students had the ability to take one or two years of academic study in one of several higher educational institutions and then, if required, could go abroad to complete their degree studies.
The language of instruction is not common in that courses can be held in a combination of two languages: French/English, French/German, or English/German.
(i) Structure
The new university now combines the former University Centre (Centre Universitaire), a technology institute (Institut Supérieur de Technologie – IST), an international institute (Institut Universitaire International) and two teacher training institutes (the Institut Supérieur d’Etudes et de Recherches Pédagogiques – ISEEP and the Institut de Formation pour Educateurs et Moniteurs – IFEM). It organises itself along the lines of three faculties: science/technology and communication; law/economics and finance; arts/humanities and education sciences.
(ii) Access
A general entry requirement for undergraduate study is a school completion certificate or certificate from a technical college, or equivalent from an overseas school. In some cases it is possible for there to be further supplementary requirements before entry is allowed. These extra needs vary from course to course.
(iii) Qualifications
The University’s qualifications are based directly on the Bologna Principles. While offering Bachelor degrees in the first cycle, the emphasis of most teaching is on the second and third cycles – Masters and Doctorate study. The Faculte de Droit, d’Economie et de Finance offers three Bachelors: Bachelor en Droit (Law), Bachelor en Sciences Economiques et de Gestion (Economics and Management) and a Bachelor en Gestion (Management).
Six Masters are offered in the Faculte including a Masters in Economics and Finance, a Master of Science in Banking and Finance and a Master in Entrepreneurship and Innovation.
Finally Doctorates in Economics are offered in the third cycle.
The main provider of university education in Malta is the University of Malta. It is publically funded with the money being part of the education budget. Regulation comes in the form of the Education Act (1998) and is implemented by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment. Course design is left to the University but ultimately it must report to the Ministry.
The University of Malta has thirteen faculties: Arts; Built Environment; Dental Surgery; Economics, Management & Accountancy; Education; Engineering; Health Sciences; Information & Communication Technology; Laws; Media & Knowledge Sciences; Medicine & Surgery; Science and Theology.
Other institutions exist such as the International Institute of Studies whose degree provision is supported by amongst others the University of Hertfordshire in the UK. Others with foreign links also exists often in the fields of business and administration.
The vocational educational track in Malta falls under the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) which consists of a number of institutes. It is answerable to the Ministry of Education but not regulated by the Education Act (1988) since it has only been established since 2001. It does offer some degree courses in specialized areas but generally concentrates on courses at level 5 and below.
(i) Structure
The University of Malta offers programmes at all three levels - undergraduate Bachelor's Degrees, which last between three and five years, postgraduate Master's Degrees that last two years full-time and Doctorates (PhD).
The Bologna process has been promoted across the University of Malta and faculties have been requested to harmonize their courses. This has been completed for all courses with the exception of Medicine and Dentistry. Most of the undergraduate courses across Faculties within the University of Malta now follow harmonized regulations.
The Education Act covers all levels of education in Malta from ISCED[1] 0 to ISCED 6.
(ii) Access
A great deal of the system of education in Malta can be traced back to a traditional UK structure including a quasi-11 plus exam for entrance to a secondary school. At the end of secondary school or sixth form colleges and before University students take a Secondary Education Certificate. A further Matriculation examination is then taken which offers the opportunity for entry to an undergraduate degree or diploma.
(iii) Qualifications
In many respects Malta was ahead of the Bologna process in that degree programmes were always based on three cycles and while the first Doctorate was not awarded until 1974 degrees at the first and second cycle level have been in place since the 1960s. Despite this structure the Minister of Education was keen for the University of Malta to embrace the Bologna principles despite the lack of formal requirement in the Education Act..
Since 2003, the University of Malta has been running the ECTS system. Full-time programmes leading to Bachelor and Master degrees last three to four years and one to two years respectively. The university’s regulations require that all courses are based on the three-cycle system.
[1] The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was designed by UNESCO in the early 1970s to serve ‘as an instrument suitable for assembling, compiling and presenting statistics of education both within individual countries and internationally’. It was approved by the International Conference on Education (Geneva, 1975), and was subsequently endorsed by UNESCO’s General Conference.
Much of the current structure and regulation of the higher education sector in Poland can be traced to the “Law on Higher Education” passed on 27th July, 2005. The previous Higher Education Act (1990) allowed for some private provision of universities rather than the more common state provision. As such there is now a mixture of both types of provision. Including the Catholic University of Lublin. These are supplemented by higher professional education providers, created via the Schools of Higher Professional Education Act (1997).
Oversight of universities and higher education generally comes from the Ministry of National Education and Science with some specific input from other ministries (e.g. Ministry of Health for Academies of Medicine or Ministry of National Defence for military schools).
(i) Structure
First cycle programmes aim to provide knowledge and skills in a specific area of study, preparing students for work in a specific profession. Graduates of first-cycle programmes have access to second-cycle programmes. Second-cycle and long-cycle programmes aim to provide specialist knowledge in a specific area of study, preparing students for creative work in a specific profession. The completion of both second cycle and long cycle programmes provides access to third cycle (doctoral) programmes.
The duration of degree programmes in both university-type and non-university HEIs is as follows:
All three types of degree programmes, including first-cycle (Bachelor’s degree), second cycle (Master’s degree) and long-cycle (Master’s degree) programmes are offered by HEIs in officially recognised fields of study. Fields of study are the same for university-type and non-university HEIs. All 119 currently existing fields are listed in the Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of 13 June 2006 on the names of fields of study. At present, degree programmes in most fields of study may be offered as first cycle programmes, second-cycle programmes and/or long-cycle programmes; with the exception of 11 fields of study including acting, art conservation and restoration, canon law, dentistry, law, medical analysis, medicine, moving image production and photography, pharmacy, psychology and veterinary medicine, where programmes are provided only as long-cycle studies.
(ii) Access
Students in secondary schools take a final examination called Matura. In addition, students wishing to progress to a higher level of education whatever the destination (college, polytechnic or university) must take and pass a Matura exam in order to gain a Swiadectwo Dojrzalosci (Matura Certificate). It is this certificate that provides a route to admission to the first cycle or licencjat degree. Each institution sets its own criteria in relation to this examination to determine admission.
To progress to a second cycle programmeme, students must hold a Bachelor’s degree (licencjat or inżynier), a Master’s degree (magister or an equivalent degree) or an equivalent degree.
Doctoral programmemes in the third cycle are provided by universities and research institutions other than HEIs. Admission is based on the students having a Master’s degree (magister or an equivalent degree) plus some institution-specific conditions.
(iii) Qualifications
Graduates of the first level courses (studia pierwszego stopnia) are awarded the professional title of licencjat or inżynier (or equivalent) after 3-4 years' study. Graduates of the second level courses (studia drugiego stopnia) are awarded the professional title of magister or equivalent after 1.5 to 2-year complementary magister level courses. There are also uniform 5-year magister level courses (jednolite studia magisterskie).
A system of grading for degrees awards works as follows:
The grading is done every semester (twice a year), not once in a school year.
The overall grade can either be based on a single exam or across the whole semester, the latter case resulting in a point system being used as opposed to the 2–5 scale.
Higher education in Romania is overseen by the Ministry of Education and Research and of the 112 universities in Romania, 54 are public and the rest are run by the private sector but such universities need to receive accreditation from the Ministry. Whatever the governance, there are many forms of higher education institutions provided and include universities, academies and colleges. The length of study varies from 3 years of short university education offered, 4-6 years of long university education and 1-2 years of postgraduate university education. A separate body, the National Council for Academic Evaluation and Accreditation, provides the regular review of quality assurance.
(i) Structure
Higher education in Romania is classified into six different forms:
Universitate (University): generally the dominant form of provision and can be broad based in terms of discipline coverage. Also engaged in research activities.
Academie (Academy): reflecting a more specialised type of activity in one area general area (e.g. music).
Universitate Politehnică (Polytechnical University): these were former polytechnics which saw their status change in 1990 and tend to focus on technical/vocational study.
Institut (Institute): reflecting study based on professional experience and thus degrees are professional in nature.
Colegiu Universitar (University College): such institutions offer a diploma for 2-3 year courses. Students graduating cannot go on to take a Masters (second cycle) programme.
Postgraduate schools independent from universities.
Higher education programmes can be classified as either short-term (ending in the diplomă de absolvire/graduation diploma) or long-term (diplomă de licenţă/licensure diploma). Universities can offer both lengths of programmes based on their specialisms.
(ii) Access
To gain entrance to short or long term programmes students must have the Diploma de Bacalaureat as a minimum. In additoon there is a competitive examination that must be passed called the Examen de Admitere. Generally, an overall score of 5 is required for higher education programmes.
Graduates from scolii profesionale (professional schools) do not have the right to apply for postsecondary education programmes.
At the end of the undergraduate programme, students take a final comprehensive exam called “Licenta”.
(iii) Qualifications
The delivery of degrees is through many different institutions but the structure of provision is based on the Bologna principles. As such there are three cycles of study.
[1] European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a standard for comparing the study attainment and performance of students of higher education across the European Union and other collaborating European countries. For successfully completed studies, ECTS credits are awarded. One academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS-credits that are equivalent to 1500-1800 hours of study in all countries irrespective of standard or qualification type and is used to facilitate transfer and progression throughout the Union.
There are three different types of institutions that deliver higher education in Slovakia, namely public, state and private institutions. All three forms provide degree level programmes although there are differences as to the extent to which they cover the full range of undergraduate and postgraduate cycles.
The Bologna Declaration underpins the structure of programmes in Slovakia with three cycles of study – Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral cycles – while studying within the state and public universities is free of charge for residents of Slovakia and of the EU.
Oversight of the sector is provided by the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (Ministerstvo školstva SR)
(i) Structure
Higher education institutions can be classified into a number of categories with the generic level being a Univerzity (University). Specialist institutions exist for a number of subjects such as Pedagogické Univerzity (University of Education) or Technické Univerzity (University of Technology) as well as [police and military academies. There are indeed specialist institutions for economics called Ekonomické Univerzity (University of Economics)
(ii) Access
There are a number of routes into the first cycle of study at a university based on the type of secondary school or study programme undertaken up to the age of 18 or 19. Gymnázium provide a Secondary School Leaving Certificate (vysvedčenie o maturitnej skúške) while more specialist schools offer a School Leaving Certificate Specialized Secondary in areas such as agriculture and health care but includes economics.
Alongside these school leaving certificates, many universities hold entrance examinations for entry to Bachelors degrees. In effect entry is governed at the most straightforward level by this maturita examination and clearly entry to the second cycle requires successful completion of cycle one and a Bachelors degree.
Entry to the third cycle requires successful completion of cycle two.
(iii) Qualifications
The principles of the Bologna Declaration help shape the provision of higher education in Slovakia in that institutions provide study programmes at three levels:
The Register of Higher Education Institutions of 30 June 2010 includes 30 independent higher education institutions and five universities, the newest of the former particularly focusing on social sciences. Slovenia participated actively in the Bologna process and as a member of the European Union it has committed itself to the goals of the Lisbon Agenda.
Higher Education in Slovenia has recently undergone a major review. The National Higher Education Programme 2011-2020 includes the entire area of tertiary education, which in addition to higher education institutions, also includes higher vocational colleges. In accordance with the Higher Education Act universities provide for the development of science, professional competence and art. Faculties perform scientific research and educational activity, while professional colleges carry out educational and also professional activity.
Higher education
(ii) Access
The basic admission requirement for a university is the Matura (Maturitetno spričevalo) exam. University study programmes last between four and six years and end with the Diploma exam. A successful student receives a Diploma with a professional title naming the field of study. With a University Diploma, students can either seek work or continue their studies at post-graduate level.
The admission requirement for postgraduate study programmes leading to Master is a university degree. These programmes last for two years and end with the defence of a thesis. Successful students receive the academic title of Master in a specific field of study.
The admission requirements for postgraduate study programmes leading to Doctor of Science are either a university degree or a Master degree. Doctoral study programmes after a University Diploma last four years, programmes for students with a Master degree last two years.
(iii) Qualifications
The post Bologna system in Slovenia is as follows:
The first-cycle has a binary system of academic and professional study programmes leading to the first-cycle degree (diplomirani). Their duration is determined by years (three to four years) and credit points (180 to 240 CP). 60 credit points may be obtained per study year; 1 credit point consists of 25 to 30 hours of a student’s work.
The second-cycle offers Masters’ study programmes leading to Magister. They consist of 60 to 120 credit points and last from one to two years.
The third-cycle, doctoral studies, leads to ‘Doktor znanosti’. Duration is three years; study requirements consist of 180 credit points, two thirds of which must be acquired by research.
There are over 70 universities in Spain with some 50 public or state provided universities and the rest coming through private provision including the Church. Universities are divided into facultades universitarias, escuelas técnicas superiores, escuelas universitarias, institutos universitarios, and other centres, notably the colegios universitarios.
The State through the Ministerio de Ciencia and Innovacion and provides the regulatory framework in which degrees can be issued and earned in both academic and professional settings. The Consejo de Universidades (where the Ministry, the Comunidades Autónomas and the Universidades are represented) coordinates the activities of all universities and is a sounding board for developing policy proposals for the Ministry. Universities are relatively autonomous with isolated exceptions in certain military, artistic and music degree programmes that are given in non-university institutions.
In line with many other countries in the EU, Spain undertook significant reform of its higher education system in 2007 by embracing the Bologna Process.
There are four different types of university establishments in Spain:
To gain access to university from secondary school, students must gain a final grade – the nota de corte – at the end of their two years of bachillerato. In addition they take the Prueba General de Bachillerato (PGB) examination and acceptance to university can depend on the result obtained. Based on this grade, students are admitted over the summer period to university with those gaining the highest marks being accepted first. EU nationals are entitled to compete for places at Spanish universities on equal terms with Spanish nationals, as are Spanish nationals in other EU countries.
Spanish higher education has adopted the three cycle degree system of the European Higher Education Area. As such three cycles of study exists.
1st Cycle (primer ciclo) - Bachelor's programmes. The first cycle of university studies (short term courses), which is followed in Escuelas Técnicas Superiores, Escuelas Universitarias and Facultades lasts for three years and leads to the Diplomado or Licenciado. More specific titles include Ingeniero Técnico or Arquitecto Técnico.
2nd Cycle (Segundo ciclo) - Master's programmes. A second cycle diploma is called a licenciatura or tesina, and is awarded after five or six years study at a facultad. The courses of study leading to Licenciado, Ingeniero and Arquitecto degrees consist of a combination of 1st and 2nd cycle studies and once completed a Licenciatura is awarded. The Ingeniero and Arquitecto degrees are awarded following an end-of-course project (proyecto fin de carrera). These long term courses are followed at Facultades and Escuelas Técnicas Superiores. The former offer courses in Humanities and Science and the latter offer courses in Technology, Engineering and Architecture. There are also second cycle only studies that lead to the Licenciado or Ingeniero degrees.
3rd Cycle – (Tercer ciclo, ciclo de especialización para la investigación y docencia) Doctoral programmes. The third cycle of studies is a PhD (doctorate) programme, for a Doctor en Filosofía y Letras The third stage is open to holders of Licenciado, Arquitecto or Ingeniero degrees and leads to the Doctor's degree (Título de Doctor) which is awarded after at least three years' further study and research. Another postgraduate degree, although it is not officially recognized (Título propio de la Universidad) is a Masters degree, awarded after 1 or 2 years of further study..
The Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings are as follows:
|
Institution
|
2004
|
2005
|
2006
|
2007
|
2008
|
2009
|
|
University of Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona/Universidad de Barcelona)
|
NR
|
NR
|
190
|
194
|
186
|
171
|
|
Autonomous University of Madrid (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
|
159
|
183
|
NR
|
NR
|
NR
|
NR
|
NR = no ranking or ranking outside top 200.